Thalassemia Essay Example

Thalassemia Paper Beta Thalassemia Beta thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder characterized by the abnormal production of a blood protein called hemoglobin. This condition is caused by a mutation within the gene that is responsible for the healthy production of hemoglobin. In healthy people, hemoglobin carries oxygen to tissues and cells throughout the body. Patients with beta thalassemia do not have adequate levels of oxygen within the blood, which can cause anemia. There are two main types of beta thalassemia with symptoms that range from mild to severe. Beta-globin is produced by two genes, one gene from each parent. The severity of the condition correlates with the amount of normal beta-globin production. Beta Thalassemia Minor The individuals with thalassemia minor have only one copy of the beta thalassemia gene. These individuals are said to be heterozygous for beta thalassemia and will have mild anemia. This situation can vary closely resemble that with mild iron-deficiency anemia. However, people with thalassemia minor have a normal blood iron level. No treatment is necessary for thalassemia minor. In particular, iron is neither necessary nor advised. Beta Thalassemia Major The child born with thalassemia major has two genes for beta thalassemia and no normal beta chain gene. The child is homozygous for beta thalassemia. This causes a striking deficiency in beta chain production and in the production of HBA. The clinical picture associated with thalassemia major was first described in 1925 by the American pediatrician Thomas Cooley. Hense, the name Cooleys anemia in his honor. At birth the baby with thalassemia major seems entirely normal. Anemia begins to develop within the first months after birth. It becomes progressively more and more severe. We will write a custom essay sample on Thalassemia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Thalassemia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Thalassemia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Chromosome location The gene controlling beta chain production is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 11 at position 15. 5. More precisely, The HBB gene is located from base pair 5,203,271 to base pair 5,204,876 on chromosome 11. Characteristics of the Disease Beta thalassema major is characterized by severe anemia that can begin months after birth. In the United States and other developed countries, beta thalassemia is identified and treated early and effectively. In untreated, beta thalassemia major can lead to severe tiredness, jaundice, and growth and developmental delay. The body attempts to compensate by producing more blood cells in the bone marrow. However, this is ineffective without the needed genetic instructions to make enough functioning hemoglobin. Instead, obvious bone expansion and changes occur that cause characteristics facial and other changes in appearance, as well as increased risk of fractures. Severe anemia affects other organs in the body such as the heart, spleen, and liver. This can lead to heart failure and enlargement of the the liver and spleen. When untreated, beta thalassemia major generally results in childhood death, usually due to heart failure. Fortunately, in developed countries diagnosis is usually made early, often before symptoms have begun. This allows for treatment with blood transfusion therapy, which can prevent most of the complications of the severe anemia caused by beta thalassemia major. A compelet blood count will identify low levels of hemoglobin and other red blood cell abnormalities that are characterized with beta thalassemia. Since thalassemia trait can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from iron deficiency, tests to evaluate iron levels are important. A hemoglobin electrophoresis is a test that can help identify the types and quantities of hemoglobin made by an individual. This test uses an electric field applied across a slab of gel-like material. Hemoglobins migrate through this gel at various rates and to specific locations, depending on their size, shape, and electrical charge. In addition, isoelectric focusing and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) use similar principles to separate hemoglobins and can be used instead of or in various combination with hemoglobin electrophoresis to determine the types and quantities of hemoglobin present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis results are usually within the normal range for all types of alpha thalassemia. However, hemoglobin A2 levels and sometimes hemoglobin F levels are elevated when beta thalassemia disease or trait is present. Hemoglobin electrophoresis can also detect structurally abnormal hemoglobins that may be co-inherited with a thalassemia trait to cause thalassemia disease or other types of hemoglobin disease. Sometimes DNA testing is needed in addition to the screening tests. This can be performed to help confirm that diagnosis and establish the exact genetic type of thalassemia. Treatment or Management of the Condition The most common treatment of all major forms of thalassemia is red blood cell transfusions. These transfusions are necessary to provide the patient with a temporary supply of healthy red blood cells with normal hemoglobin capable of carrying the oxygen that the pateints body needs. While thalassemia patients were given infrequent transfusions in the past, clinical research led to a more frequent program of regular blood cell transfusions that greatly improved the patients quality of life. Today, most patients with a major form of thalassemia receive red blood cell transfusions every two to three weeks, amounting to as much as 52 pints of blood a year. Because there is no natural way to the body to eliminate iron, the iron in the transfused blood cells builds up in a condition known as iron overload and becomes toxic to tissues and organs, particularly the liver and heart. To help remove excess iron, patients undergo iron chelation therapy, in which a drug introduced into the body which binds with excess iron and removes it through the urine or stool. In 2005, FDA approved an oral chelator, Exjade. This is a pill which is dissolved in water or juice once a day. Molecular Genetics Beta thalassemia is caused by mutations in the HBB gene. More than 250 mutations in the HBB gene have been caused beta thalssemia. Most of the mutations involve a change in single DNA building block within or near the HBB gene. Other mutations insert or delete a small number of nucleotides in the HBB gene. HBB gene mutations that decrease beta-globin production result in a type of the condition called beta-plus thalssemia. Mutations that prevent cells from producing any beta-globin result in beta-zero thalssemia. Without proper amounts of beta-globin, sufficient hemoglobin cannot be formed. A lack of hemoglobin disrupts the normal development of red blood cells. A shortage of mature red blood cells prevents these cells from carrying and delivering enough oxygen to satisfy the body’s energy needs. A lack of oxygen in the body’s tissues can lead to poor growth, organ damage, and other health problems associated with beta thalassemia. Genetic Testing DNA analysis is available to investigate deletions and mutations in the beta-globin producing genes. Family studies can be done to evaluate carrier status and the types of mutations present in family members. DNA testing is not routinely done but can be used to help diagnosis thalassemia and to determine carrier status. Other relevant information Being a carrier of the disease may confer a degree of protection against malaria, as it is quite common among people of Italian and Greek origin, and also in some African and Indian regions. This probably by making the red blood cells more susceptible to the less lethal species Plasmodium vivax simultaneously making the hosts red blood cell environment unsuitable for the more lethal strain Plasmodium falciparum. This is believed to be a selective advantage for patients with the various thalassemia traits. More information can be found at: * Medline Plus * Genetics Home Reference * Cooleys Anemia Foundation References Beta Thalassemia. Genetics Home Reference. U. S. National Library of Medicine. July 2009. April 25, 2010. http://ghr. nlm. nih. gov/condition=betathalassemia Beta Thalassemia. Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. lpch. org/DiseaseHealthInfo/HealthLibrary/hematology/thalbeta. html About Thalassemia. Cooleys Anemia Foundation. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. thalassemia. org/index. php? option=com_content;view=article;id=19;Itemid=27 Beta Thalassemias. US Department of Health ; Human Services. National Institute of Health. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. nhlbi. nih. gov/health/dci/Diseases/Thalassemia/Thalassemia_WhatIs. html Mormino, Vincenzo. Thalassemia in Sicily. Best of Sicily Magazine. 004. April 25, 2010. http://www. bestofsicily. com/mag/art133. htm Thalassemia. Prathama Blood Center. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. prathama. org/thalassimias. php Thalassemia. Disease Information. Iron Overload. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. ironoverloadme. com/hcp/disease_information/thalaseemia. html When Your Child Has Beta Thalassemia. Mount Nittany Medical Center. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. mount nittany. org/wellness-library/healthsheets/documents? ID=11943 Beta Thalassemia. Access DNA. 2010. April 25, 2010. http://www. accessdna. com/condition/Beta-Thalassemia/60

Wolf Reintroduction to Yellowstone Park Essay Example

Wolf Reintroduction to Yellowstone Park Essay Example Wolf Reintroduction to Yellowstone Park Paper Wolf Reintroduction to Yellowstone Park Paper Wolf Reintroduction To Yellowstone Park Ted Fessides Ecology, Summer Semester 2011 Professor Thomas Heasley July 15, 2011 Contents Introduction3 History4 The Cons of Wolf Reintroduction6 Pros of Wolf Reintroduction7 Summary9 11 Reintroduction of Wolves at Yellowstone Park Introduction While highly controversial, the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone Park has provided many beneficial ecological changes to the entire parks ecosystem. After a nearly 70 year absence, in January of 1995, 14 wolves from separate packs were captured in the Canadian Rockies and transported to Yellowstone National Park in the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho (Sanders par. 2). The Canis Lupus or more commonly known as the gray wolf is the largest wild member in the Canine family. While once covering vast areas of the North American and European continent, the grey wolf was hunted to near extinction in the 1900’s due to mostly folk lore and fear. There were at least 136 confirmed kills between 1914 and 1926, and by the 1970’s biologist could find no evidence of a wolf population in Yellowstone Park. (National Park Service par. 1). Wolves were highly populated when the park opened in 1872 but due to predator control measures, lack of legal protection for the species, and the classification as a nuisance animal all played factors that led to their absence in the park. It was for this reason that the gray wolf was placed on the Endangered Species List in 1974 and it has taken until 2008 and more than 27 million dollars to bring the species back into a suitable population and remove them from the endangered list (Associated Press par. 12). The move to reintroduce the wolf was very controversial with conservational and environmental groups pushing and supporting the measure but many ranchers and farmers in the area being very wary of it. But there was no denying that the ecosystem of the park had changed since the wolves’ absence, with a large increase in the elk and coyote population but a steady decline in beavers and certain native insects, trees and shrubs. History In 1987 the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) introduced a plan to Congress to reintroduce an experimental population of wolves into Yellowstone. In 1991 Congress authorized funds to conduct a study of introducing wolves back into the park in a joint plan between USFWS, National Park Service (NPS) and the U. S. Forest Service (National Park Service par. 4). Finally, in 1994 the Secretary of the Interior signed off on the Final Environmental Impact Statement or FEIS, allowing the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone (National Park Service par. 4). In 1995 the Canadian Government allowed capture of 14 gray wolves in the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, Canada. Wolves were captured from many different packs due to the difficulty in trapping an entire pack and also to diversify the DNA pool for future breeding (Sanders par. 3) The wolves were divided up into three groups and placed into three one acre acclimation pens in the Lamar Valley of the park and readied for a soft release. A soft release involves holding animals temporarily in suitable habitat to get them acclimated to their new surroundings and to discourage widespread dispersment that often happens with hard release, which involves transporting animals to their new home and releasing them immediately (Sanders par. 35. 38). Hard release is also less successful due to the territorial instincts of wolves, with wolves killing or fighting any other olf that may enter their territory. The wolves that were released outside the park in Idaho were given a hard release and mostly scattered and did not develop a pack bond like those in the acclimation pens (Sanders par. 39,41). According to Mike Smith, who works for Yellowstone Park, â€Å"In general, the acclimation has worked very well, In fact of the 31 wolves brought in from Canada, there was only one wolf who did not take to soft release, that wolf was #27 who killed almost 50 sheep a few weeks ago and had to be destroyed† (Hamann par. 5). While in the acclimation pens the wolves were fed a diet of elk and other road kill with wolves typically consuming 21 to 32 pounds of meat in a single feeding. In March of 1995, three of the packs were released in Yellowstone, but with one issue; the wolves refused to exit through the gate because they had associated it with humans, forcing the park rangers to cut a hole in the side of the enclosure for them to escape (Sanders par. 11). Once the wolves were released two of the packs left the park and set up their territory leaving only one group initially setting up inside the park. On May 3, 1995 female wolf number nine gave birth to eight puppies, the first wolves to be born in the park in nearly 70 years. The mother and pups were recaptured and taken back to the acclimation pen, until the pups were weaned (Sanders par. 15). The reason for this recapture was because at this time, this wolf and her eight pups counted for almost 50% of the park’s wolf population. Since this time there have been no other human interventions preferring to let nature take its course on the population. In 1996-1997 a second group of wolves was captured and brought to Yellowstone for introduction via soft release with two more acclimation pens being built, bringing the total to four. In the winter of 1997-1998 the reintroduction of wolves was stopped due to the high success of the wolf packs breeding and the pups surviving on their own. The breeding and pup survival was so high in fact that in just ten years the gray wolf was taken off the endangered species list and it’s status changed to threatened in the reater Yellowstone area. It is estimated that since the initial introduction of 66 wolves in the mid 1990’s the population has soared to an estimated 1500 in the Idaho, Wyoming and Montana area surrounding the park (Associated Press par. 1). The Cons of Wolf Reintroduction Of course the reintroduction of the gray wolf had many critics, from neighboring ranchers and farmers concerned for their livestock to residents concerned for their children and pets. In an open forum meeting in Grangeville, Idaho it was shown how much public education was needed when the local school superintendent raised concerns over rural children at bus stops being targets even though there is not one verified report of a human attack by wolves in North America (Wolf Reintroduction: How the wolves came back par. 4). It was again the fear and folklore surrounding the wolf that made the public uneasy and in need of education. As the debate over wolf reintroduction continued, the rancher’s opposition to wolf recovery centered around two fundamental issues. First, they were concerned about wolf predation and whether or not they, personally, would be able to manage depredating wolves. Second, they were concerned about their rights to federal landsprobably their biggest concern. A rancher from Dillon, Montana, expresses his fear, We are more worried about the land grab with the wolf than we are depredation. Ranchers, loggers and other industrial interests that utilize federal lands were concerned that the lands they were accustomed to using would be restricted from further use because of the wolf. Neither this concern regarding land use rights nor the concern over depredation could be answered easily (Wolf Reintroduction: How the wolves came back par. 6). To help alleviate the ranchers concerns, Defenders of Wildlife, a nonprofit organization supporting wolf reintroduction launched a program to compensate ranchers and farmers who lost livestock to wolf depredation. AS of 2002 DOW had paid out approximately 270,000 dollars to ranchers in the Northern Rockies region (Wolf Management par. 7). Another major concern was that of native species population with the reintroduction of the wolf. There was much concern over what would happen to the native population of elk, bison and other carnivores, such as the grizzly bear, coyotes, red foxes and others that live in the park. It was speculated that their populations would all drop dramatically with the reintroduction, as wolves can overhunt large animals like deer and antelope. To go along with that concern was also those of the big game hunters who claimed that the wolves would be directly competing for the same big game animals they were, which in turn would decrease the numbers of hunters and the money they spend and contribute to the greater Yellowstone area. One other large issue is the large amount of money it takes to reintroduce a species. This is money that the government could use towards larger and more important issues facing this country. As stated earlier it is estimated that as of 2008 approximately 27 million dollars of federal money has been spent to support the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone Park (Associated Press par. 12) Pros of Wolf Reintroduction One of the biggest pros since the reintroduction of the gray wolf into the greater Yellowstone area is that of the economic impact it has had on the region. A survey conducted in 2005 by Yellowstone staff estimates that wolves bring in approximately 22 to 48 million annually (John W. Duffield 17). This is done by the wolf presence, which leads to increased visitation to Yellowstone Park, which in turn leads to increased spending in the communities surrounding the park, and increased recreational enjoyment for residents and visitors alike. Another benefit of the wolf reintroduction is an improvement on the ecosystem of Yellowstone; in 1995 when the wolves were reintroduced there was only one colony of beavers in Yellowstone Park. Ten years later there are nine colonies of beavers, all due to wolf depredation on elk. After the removal of wolves from the park the elk herds grew, these larger herds grazed heavily on willow and elm trees which the beavers depended on. Another factor was that with the wolves out of the park the elk did not have any pressure from predators pushing them around the park, which in turn led to them staying in one area and over grazing (Farquhar par. 2). Because of he increased beaver population and dispersement through the park, their dams have many positive effects on the ecosystem, such as, â€Å"they even out the seasonal pulses of runoff; store water for recharging the water table; and provide cold, shaded water for fish, while the now robust willow stands provide habitat for songbirds† (Farquhar par. 12). The dams also trap sediment, replenish ground water, and cool water temperature which has a direct effect on Yellowstone cutthroat trout, moose, waterfowl, muskrats and ot her rodents and numerous insects and amphibians (Ecological benefits of wolves par. ) Another benefit was that a study done by University of California at Berkley found that decreased snowfall and increased wolf population has greatly benefited other carnivores and scavengers from ravens to grizzly bears. â€Å"Instead of a boom and bust cycle of elk carrion availability-as existed before wolves and when winters were harder-theres now a more equitable distribution of carrion throughout winter and early spring† said Chris Wilmers in the on-line journal Public Library of Science Biology. He added that scavengers that once relied on winter-killed elk for food now depend on wolf-killed elk. This benefits ravens, eagles, magpies, coyotes and bears (grizzly and black), especially as the bears emerge hungry from hibernation’ (Farquhar par. 23). The most recognized and well-documented ecological benefit of wolves is that they have resumed the important role of maintaining healthy wildlife herds in the northern Rockies by selecting young, old, physically impaired, or diseased animals. By reducing prey numbers, dispersing these animals on the landscape, and removing sick animals, wolves also may reduce the transmission and prevalence of wildlife diseases such as chronic wasting disease and brucellosis (Ecological benefits of wolves par 2). Summary The return of the wolf to the greater Yellowstone area has had significant ecological benefits in a relatively short period of time. Ecological concerns contributed to the decision to return wolves and should play a role in how states manage this keystone species. Although it is easy to focus on the perceived negative impacts of wolves, it is important to recognize the actual benefits they provide to our ecosystem. By regulating wildlife herds and reducing the prevalence of diseases, revitalizing riparian areas, reducing coyote densities, providing food for scavengers and indirectly improving conditions for a host of other species, wolves play an essential role in maintaining the ecological health and integrity of the landscape. From an economic standpoint, the cost of reintroduction is far outweighed by the benefits of increased tourism and the money they spend. When it comes to livestock depredation, wolves garner a great deal of attention yet they are only one of many concerns for ranchers in the greater Yellowstone area and have less of an impact than often is perceived. Livestock is more likely to be lost because of inclement weather, disease, and domestic dogs than it is by wolves. Environmental Issues The thing I was most impressed by from writing this report was that of how by introducing one species into an ecosystem or should I say reintroducing a species was the snowball effect it had on other species in that system. I knew of the reintroduction of the wolves to Yellowstone Park but I thought it was only about returning a native species to its original habitat. I was amazed at how the ecosystem has not only grown but flourished with their reintroduction. Wolf reintroduction has grown the local economy in the greater Yellowstone Area through tourism and increased recreational activity. It has benefited the ecosystem through increased beaver numbers which in turn has improved the stream live. Through the decrease in the elk population the trees and shrubs have been able to grow benefiting numerous woodland animals. This story is one of the greatest conservation stories of the 20th century that continues today. Associated Press. Western Wolves coming off the endangered list. 27 Feburary 2008. msnbc. com. 9 July 2011 . Ecological benefits of wolves. November 2009. JHalliance. Org. 9 July 2011 . Farquhar, Brodie. Yellowstone National Park Wolf Reintroduction is changing the face of the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. 2006. Yellowstone Park. 9 July 2011 . Hamann, Jack. Wolves return to Yellowstone sparks controversy. 12 November 1997. CNN. 2 July 2011 . John W. Duffield, Chris J. Neher, and David A. Patterson. Wolf Recovery in Yellowstone: Park Visitor Attitudes,Expenditures and Economic Impact. The George Wright Forum (2008): 17. Maughan, Ralph. History of the Greater Yellowstone wolf restoration. n. d. 6 July 2011 . National Park Service. Wolf Restoration. n. d. 2 July 2011 . - . Wolves of Yellowstone. n. d. 3 July 2011 . Sanders, Kevin. Yellowstone-Bearman. 2009. 2 July 2011 . Wolf Management. April 2003. Montana fish, wildlife and parks. 8 July 2011 . Wolf Reintroduction: How the wolves came back. n. d. www. uidaho. edu. 9 July 2011 .

MOIGC Assignment 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

MOIGC 2 - Assignment Example This helped the firm to achieve competitive edge and creative adaptation for surviving in a turbulent economy. This paper is an extensive review of the leadership, cultural and structural activities implemented by Haier group. Innovation culture followed by Haier is described through its various initiatives such as Win-win model and OEC control groups. The paper also throws light on the various acquisition and expansion strategies which Haier took so as to achieve competitive edge. The company has evolved from being a profit oriented to customer oriented. The study has also analysed the critical relation between its internal innovation strategies and its importance while meeting the changing demands in a knowledge economy. Sufficient facts and information has been providing confirming that Haier has successfully established a fit state with the objective of maximising its opportunities for future innovation and gain sustainable competitive advantage. Marketers and analysts have long realized the importance of innovation. However, it is also true that for long term survival and success in any industry, it is essential to develop a powerful innovation culture. Such culture can be easily recognized within a firm which is known as an authentic and genuine innovator in the external marketplace. The culture is also known to harbour innovation friendly and dynamic environment in its internal workplace. It is also a known fact that innovation culture is very uncommon in the current business environment. A major factor behind this is the inclination towards predictability and stability as they are a readymade path for earning profit. On the contrary, innovation is about change and adaptation where survival and profits can be extremely difficult to achieve, at least during the first few years of implementation. So, innovation has become one of the top priorities for both large

International Commercial Arbitration and Privity of Contract Essay

International Commercial Arbitration and Privity of Contract - Essay Example What is international commercial arbitration? International commercial arbitration is a way in which parties can use an alternative method of dispute resolution on an international level. International law however does not clearly and concisely define what it is in reality. Alternatively, the UNCITRAL contains a Model Law which governs and defines more clearly international commercial arbitration as â€Å"any arbitration whether or not administered by a permanent arbitral institution†.1 David also provides a definition which states that ICA is a tool by which parties can settle a question by decisions of third parties â€Å"who derive their powers from a private agreement, not from the authorities of a State, and who are to decide the case on the basis of such an agreement†.2 Indeed, arbitration clauses are often specifically contained in contracts, which are specified as binding on the parties outside of court: ICA is binding privately according to the agreement of the parties.3 The purpose of the UNCITRAL Model Law is to aid states in reforming and brining up to date their national laws and regulations on the process of arbitration and it was adopted and implemented globally some 26 years ago.4 The Model Law is comprehensive and applies to all signatory states in many areas of ICA, including the recognition and enforcement of orders and awards, though states are not obliged to directly apply the law in their domain. Such countries prefer to use the Model Law as a framework which they adapt to coincide with their own national laws, economic systems, and public policy norms. Privity of Contract in International Commercial Arbitration Privity of contract requires that all parties to an agreement must voluntarily commit to the agreement for it to be enforceable; this is otherwise termed as mutual consent. In an ICA context, it can thus be applied to state that the parties to a contractual arbitration clause must voluntarily agree to the content of t he clause before it can be deemed binding upon the parties. Essentially, it is stated that arbitration without privity is not enforceable; particularly if â€Å"coercion, fraud,...[and]... lack of identity of the parties† is evident.5 Privity of contract thus aims to provide an equal playing field for both parties who come from different counties, as it allows them to rely on arbitration clauses in order â€Å"to be free of national procedural and substantive law†.6 ICA thus allows disputes which may arise between parties to become subject to regulations which are on a different level to the national laws of the parties so that claims concerning international privity of contract may be avoided. By agreeing on an alternative method of arbitration, both parties are able to be defined as autonomously agreeing to settle their disputes in a value-free manner. However, this again is differently viewed in practice, as many express concern in relation to privity of contract be cause parties to a contract may not be said to be parties to the international regulations on ICA. This claim is further aggravated by the fact that the UNCITRAL in particular is often altered or adjusted to fit in with national law, and its content is thus

The Automatic Stabilizer Essay Example for Free

The Automatic Stabilizer Essay In macroeconomics an automatic stabilizer refers to any economic program or policy that automatically increases or decreases to counteract or stabilize the present economic trend without the need for governmental assistance (â€Å"Automatic Stabilizer,† 2007). Auerbach Feenberg (2000) describe automatic stabilizers as â€Å"elements of fiscal policy† that moderate fluctuations in aggregate output. From the Keynesian viewpoint, automatic stabilizers may include those constituents of the government budget that increase government spending and reduce taxes during a recession, and do exactly the opposite during a boom (Auerbach Feenberg). Automatic stabilizers are precipitated by shocks that cause the aggregate economic activity to either increase or decrease (Auerbach Feenberg). As an example, there are certain kinds of taxes, e. g. the progressive tax, that â€Å"rise more than proportionately† to offset increases in income (Automatic Stabilizers). If these taxes did not exist, the government would have to take action against increases in income so as to prevent the inflation rate from rising in the near future. But, if the government had to take action to raise taxes in that event, it would first have to determine that income has, indeed, risen, before it would pass a law and wait for the law to go into effect. This could be a rather time-consuming process. Moreover, by the time the new law is ready to have an effect on the economy, the economic trend may have reversed (Automatic Stabilizers). Automatic stabilizers tend to help the economy regardless of whether it is experiencing or bound to experience a boom or slump. When income decreases, the economy may ultimately hit a recession. However, â€Å"[u]nemployment compensation and income supplements† for the poor may come to the rescue before the government decides to take action against the drop in income (Automatic Stabilizers). As the income drops, there are more people that are eligible for â€Å"[u]nemployment compensation and income supplements (Automatic Stabilizers). Hence, the economy may be saved from experiencing a downturn through these automatic stabilizers. Auerbach Feenberg have estimated that the payroll and income taxes in the United States have the power to offset approximately eight percent of an initial shock to the Gross Domestic Product. However, the impact of these taxes was higher during late 70s and early 80s because of high inflation. Of course, tax rates have an effect on the power of these automatic stabilizers. According to the authors, however, â€Å"the effectiveness of an automatic stabilizer depends not only on how much of an increase in disposable income it produces, but also how large a private response in consumption this increase in disposable income generates (Auerbach Feenberg). † This is because the spending of households with different levels of income is expected to differ even as the automatic stabilizers are at work (Auerbach Feenberg). Undoubtedly, the effectiveness of automatic stabilizers differs among nations with different levels of income inequality. Moreover, countries differ in their tax rates and the design of their income supplements. Therefore, automatic stabilizers are expected to have differing impacts across countries. Regardless of their impacts, however, automatic stabilizers are very helpful for the economics in which they are at work (Automatic Stabilizers). Lastly, by estimating the impacts of various automatic stabilizers, governments may design programs and policies, that is, automatic stabilizers, that would counteract shocks more effectively in the future. Methods of reducing income inequality are also expected to alter the effectiveness of the automatic stabilizers.

The Applications of ICT- Shopping :: ICT Essays

The Applications of ICT- Shopping Supermarkets and checkouts. The advancements in the technological world have allowed supermarket chains and other national stores to quickly dominate the market and are driving out the concept of the ‘local stores’. This surge in the market has seen shares rise and profits bulge with the three main contenders in mind being Sainsburys, Safeways and Tescos who now serve the whole of the UK between them and are the household names of the shopping world. The ICT input to these businesses is vital in that it provides speedy service; controls stock levels and will even allow bank balance transfers to be carried out with minimal difficulty or technical experience. The ‘till’, arguably a simple word has been given several names in the information technology world depending on the tasks, which the one in question can perform. Â · POS- Point Of Sale terminal (ordinary checkout) Â · EPOS- Electronic Point Of Sale terminal (Checkout connected to a computer data base using a laser scanner to read bar codes). Â · EFTPOS- Electronic Funds Transfer Point Of Sale (the same as EPOS with the capability to make transfers for customers to pay for goods via credit or debit cards. The checkout uses the ICC (integrated chip card which is very popular on the continent) or Magnetic strip on the card to request the information of the user to see whether or not they are eligible to make an EFT. The magnetic strip can only hold a limited amount of data such that an 11 or so digit code is sufficient to recall the same data from the bank servers. The ICC however can hold much more information and is much harder to copy or have data changed by criminals or hackers. The checkouts used in modern supermarket chains are all capable of EFT and are therefore all considered EFTPOS. In the next few years checkouts or ‘tills’ in all retail shops will use the ICC Barcodes The goods found in supermarkets are labelled with barcodes used to identify specific items on a central database. When the good is scanned a request is sent from the checkout to this main database where the request is handled and the appropriate information returned to that terminal and the correct amount reduced from the stock of that item. The bar codes are formed of lines of different widths and as each line represents a number the resulting code is the information sent to the main computer.

Medieval and early modern Essay

The medieval and early modern periods were eras with distinctive issues and ideals. Some of their key themes were very similar, such as the importance of religion and the role it played in everyday life, while other matters were unique to their time, such as the medieval selling of indulgences, or the early modern Reformation of the Church. These examples illustrate clearly the mixture of change and stasis in the two ages, as a subject shared by both periods yielded so great a diversity of issues. The distinction of the eras makes it evident that some change did occur, but as the period of time between them was not very great, the change must be limited. Everyman and Dr Faustus are respectively medieval and early modern drama texts that share common issues. However, the way in which they handle them varies, and allows an exploration of whether the people and culture of the medieval and early modern period differed by slight degree or strict demarcation. The medieval age of English history is epitomised as a strongly religious time, where Christianity provided a strict identity and purpose in life. Belief in Heaven, Hell and Judgement was very real, as was the constant fear of sin and damnation. The Church was able to manipulate the devout faith of its followers by selling fake holy relics and religious indulgences. The laymen believed it was necessary for them to obtain such items in order to purify themselves of sin, and enter Heaven without suffering through Purgatory. Medieval drama did much to reinforce these beliefs, being completely liturgical. Morality plays were first performed at religious holidays, and warned audiences about sin and salvation, with personification of the psychomachia. They all shared a highly similar narrative structure as good and evil battled for the soul of an initially virtuous man who had become caught in vice. This person represented the whole of humanity, and the play would show how, despite temptat ion and with the help of Christian values, he realised his error and won salvation. By the early modern era, neither the faith in Christ nor in Judgement had diminished, but the understanding of them had altered. People became frustrated with the â€Å"ecclesiastical despotism† that was rife in the established Church, and there was widespread dissatisfaction with the papal  organisation which, according to Erasmus, was felt to be dominated by ignorant monks. The subsequent Reformation changed the form and understanding of religion, making it more accessible to the average person by removing the intercessory functions of priests and bishops, and giving ordinary people more control over their spiritual state. This religious change also had political implications. The disestablishment of the Church created a degree of civil unrest among Catholic and Protestant groups, as factions sprang up with each viewing the other as traitorous, either to England or to God. However, this was not the only face of the early modern era. As the beginning of the Renaissance, it was also â€Å"a time of heady intoxication with†¦learning and†¦discovery.† The exploits of the European sailors and the excitement over new civilisations are allegorised by Faustus’ discovery of magic and the power it wields. As a liturgical morality play, Everyman submits itself fully to the pre-Reformation teachings, and absorbs the conventional attitudes. It was written to encourage medieval audiences to avoid material pursuits, and to ensure they involved themselves in good deeds and were prepared for Judgement. Death was a constant escort in medieval England, and could be expected at any time. As such, Everyman does not convey fear of death itself, but rather of how God will judge man after it, as the protagonist proclaims â€Å"Full unready I am such reckoning to give† and begs for more time in which to make his â€Å"counting-book†¦so clear That my reckoning I should not need to fear.† To achieve this salvation, Everyman is advised to turn to the Catholic rites of confession and penance, and to scourge himself to remove his sins. As Cawley highlights in his introduction, morality plays were â€Å"less interested in man’s earthly life than in his spiritual welfare in the l ife to come.† Religion is as prominent in Doctor Faustus, but Marlowe presents a contrasting attitude to that of Everyman. His play provides a mocking critique of religious customs, and particularly ridicules Catholic rituals. Marlowe dresses Mephostophilis in the habit of an old Franciscan friar, as Faustus comments â€Å"That holy shape becomes a devil best,† illustrating an air of contempt for the Catholic clergy. He further associates Catholicism with  evil and devilry as he conjures Mephostophilis by chanting in Latin, the language of the Catholic Church. This mockery of Catholicism may be testament to contemporary social attitudes rather than the personal view of Marlowe himself. In the medieval era, it was highly uncommon for anybody to speak out against the Church, either through fear or because it was all they knew, but the Reformation encouraged writers to criticise the papacy and the earlier Church, often as a form of public entertainment. Writers often allied Catholic characters with themes of idiocy or ineptitude, as Marlowe does in his portrayal of Pope Adrian as â€Å"a humourless megalomaniac, void†¦of commonsense† . Marlowe manipulated the public disdain of Catholicism to criticise established religion in general, challenging many commonly held views, especially regarding forgiveness and salvation. Everyman’s central theme suggests that God’s mercy always allows sinners to repent, regardless of how much wrong they have done. This belief is illustrated when, despite Death telling Everyman to â€Å"Come hence, and not tarry,† Everyman is able to go to Confession and purify himself from sin. Knowledge, Beauty, Strength, Discretion and the Five Wits are sent to accompany him to the grave, helping Everyman to realise God’s compassion. Good Deeds guide Everyman into the grave and beyond, providing protection and support when he needs it. In comparison, Faustus also finds that he is sent good forces to protect him from eternal damnation. Unfortunately, these forces are not strong enough to withstand Mephostophilis. The latter’s evil and cunning defeat nature itself, as he dissolves Faustus’ congealed blood with a chafer of unearthly fire to ensure Faustus bequeaths his soul to Lucifer. A Good Angel and a pious Old Man are also sent to rescue Faustus’ soul, but their efforts are overcome just as quickly, as the devils entice Faustus with hellish delights and overpower his weak soul. The Good Angel urges Faustus to â€Å"leave that execrable art† and turn to repentance, but each time Faustus considers prayer the Bad Angel dispirits him, dramatising the internal battles raging within the protagonist’s soul. Marlowe does not conclude that everyone can find redemption in God, as despite striving to turn to Him in his final moments, Faustus is torn apart by devils and condemned eternally. The playwright provides a cynical view of  salvation, as the Good Angel and the Old Man fail to save Faustus, despite seemingly plotting as much as Mephostophilis to win the protagonist’s soul. Marlowe provides further dubious similarity between the two sides, as in their last scene the angels appear to work almost as one, completing each other’s speeches and reinforcing the same message that it is too late for Faustus to repent. The play appears to be concerned with punishment rather than deliverance and salvation, as Faustus is warned that â€Å"He who loves pleasure must for pleasure fall.† In contrast, Everyman is forgiven for a lifetime of sin in his last few moments. Although both plays treat the same ideas of religion and redemption, they portray divergent views. This may be explained by the contemporary change in religious understanding. Some scholars argued that people’s destinies were predetermined, regardless of their actions, while others claimed there was hope for everybody. As Lester notes in his introduction, medieval writers believed that because of mankind’s fallen state, man relied on the grace and salvation earned by Christ and ministered by the Church. In this respect, the distinction between medieval and early modern seems to be vast. However, the fact that both plays have handled the same issues, albeit in different ways, suggests that the difference is of degree rather than demarcation. As well as the religious elements, Doctor Faustus incorporates Renaissance themes of discovery and knowledge, as Faustus finds a â€Å"world of profit and delight, of power, of honour, of omnipotence† has opened to him. Fundamentally, it is a craving for ultimate knowledge that drives Faustus to necromancy, as he proclaims, â€Å"A sound magician is a demi-god: here tire my brains to gain a deity!† By integrating such humanist ideals into the play, Marlowe creates a dimensional personality for Faustus, which the audience can appreciate and respond to. They witness the development of the character, forcing them to become emotionally involved in the mental turmoil he endures, and keeping them engrossed until the very last line of the play. Professor Bradbrook suggests that Doctor Faustus is primarily an examination of the protagonist’s â€Å"mental development, rather than simply†¦the form of Faustus’ fortunes.† The rationale behind Faustusâ€⠄¢ detailed growth is that it makes him a real person, with whose experiences the audience can sympathise. Everyman’s character is not developed in the way his counterpart’s is. He is generic and seen as part of the wider universe rather than as an individual. The dramatist has been careful to portray Everyman as representative of mankind rather than as a character in his own right. He is not given a personal history nor is any indication provided that might differentiate him from anybody, with the effect of making Everyman relevant to all audience members. He personifies every man and the trials of every person. His example can be applied to anybody, and everybody can see that the salvation he reaches is available to them as well. In this manner, Everyman is as accessible to the audience as Faustus is, although in different ways and with variant purposes fulfilled. There are further similarities between the medieval and early modern plays, some of which have been adopted directly from the former. The use of allegorical and highly functional characters is prevalent in both plays, although it is not as common among other Renaissance texts. In Everyman, each character serves a distinct purpose, showing Everyman how he has misplaced his trust in worldly matters and must turn to Christian teachings for salvation. Fellowship and Kinship tempt Everyman astray by offering to distract him with feasting, drinking and women. Even material Beauty and Knowledge cannot help him, leaving Everyman to seek out Confession, Contrition and Good Deeds. Doctor Faustus is very much in keeping with this medieval attribute. Mephostophilis is the embodiment of temptation, as he distracts Faustus from repentance whenever he feels the protagonist waver, and later admits â€Å"‘Twas I that, when thou wert I’ the way to heaven†¦led thine eye.† The Good Angel and Old Man are personifications of good, devout Christians who try to save Faustus. They too can be seen as tempters, as they try to win his soul. The two plays also share personification of the Seven Deadly Sins. Mephostophilis conjures them as a distraction for Faustus, allowing him to delight in the sins, while in Everyman the sins are allegorised in the behaviour of the protagonist’s dearest people and possessions, suggesting that Everyman has allowed the sins to master him. As well as thematic similarities, there are several production parallels between the medieval and early modern drama. However, these are veiled by  the immense changes that occurred on the stage in the intervening years. Before the Renaissance, plays were performed on and around large wagons, which were carted from one designated area to another. The set was very simple for transportation purposes, but this helped make it apprehendable for the common peasants. The staging was very different for Doctor Faustus, but some of the same ideas regarding spacing and costumes were used. The pageant-wagons had to make use of limited space, and used an upper room to serve as a balcony, heaven, or a distant location. In later theatre the same concept was utilised, with a single spot serving a multitude of functions. Costumes were also sparse, but symbolic props indicated particular roles and characters, another theatrical convention that early modern dramatists relied upon before professional actors were hired in the permanent theatres, and elaborate costumes and sets were made. The new theatres allowed more believable storylines to develop as settings and characters became more realistic, allowing the fiery devils of Doctor Faustus to achieve their optimum effect. However, there is one dramatic convention that is key to Doctor Faustus, which was not common in medieval works. Faustus’ soliloquies provide an insight to his character that cannot be gained in morality plays, and are actually symbolic of tragedies. While Everyman’s genre is made clear by its fully functional characters and its reliance on the protagonist’s generic nature, Marlowe’s play balances medieval aspects with contemporary humanist elements and manages to create a new genre that combines elements of morality and tragedy, creating an increasingly real persona. Faustus is distinguished from his medieval counterpart by his illustration of the psychology and passions that drive him. He concedes to his hubris and allows his ambition and lust for power to destroy him, something Everyman cannot do. The tragedy element is vital to Doctor Faustus as that is what gives it the memorable depth and allows the drama to move away from being a simple morality pla y. In conclusion, it is evident that despite their classification as two separate periods, the medieval and the early modern eras share many themes and issues. Their similarities are not limited to literal points, and  incorporate social and customary ones. The eras do have their differences, as is illustrated by their distinction and by their changing contemporary outlooks. Marlowe’s handling of the plays’ shared subjects differs from that of Everyman’s, as the former had a variant combination of social factors to draw his conclusions from. However, the time lapse between the two periods was not great enough to warrant a complete overhaul of thinking and customs. As Cookson realises, â€Å"the traditions of the Middle Ages still weighed heavily† over the early modern writers. At the point at which Doctor Faustus was composed, the difference between medieval and early modern was still of degree rather than strict demarcation. Bibliography  §Bradbrook,MC Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy 2nd Edition (Newcastle: Cambridge University Press, 1990)  §Cawley,AC (ed.) Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays (London: Everyman’s Library, 1967)  §Cookson,L Doctor Faustus (Hong Kong: Longman Group UK, 1987)  §Davies,T Humanism (New York: Routledge, 1997)  §Henderson,P Christopher Marlowe (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1966)  §Lester,GA (ed.) Three Late Medieval Morality Plays (London: Ernest Benn, 1981)